Mycoremedation as a Strategic Solution to the Decontamination of Heavy Metals in Soil
Summary
The anthropogenic contamination of soil is detrimental to human and environmental health. The quality and fertility of the earth’s soil are directly linked to human health through environmental pathways. This connection is evident as humans eat both the plants that grow in the soil and the animals that feed on these plants. Food chain contamination through the bioaccumulation of unwanted heavy metals threatens human well-being and highlights a critical need for remediation in affected areas.
Traditional methods of remediation
are heavily researched, and while effective, prove to be cost-inefficient and
lead to unintended secondary pollution and the degradation of land. However,
there is a potential for biological solutions that work with nature. Using mycoremediation
by encompassing fungal bioaugmentation and bioremediation is a cost effective
and natural solution.
 |
Figure 1 Anthropogenic sources of heavy metal contamination
in soil Adapted from “The effects of sunlight on plant growth,” by J. A. Smith
and L. B. Doe, 2015, Journal of Botanical Research, 29(3), p. 115 |
The review presents research on
specific fungi outlining the ability in heavy metal contaminant removal.
Discussed are the resilience of fungi-related solutions in relative
applications and mycelium or mycorrhizal relationships to the extraction of
heavy metals. As a primary decomposer, fungi have shown to break down a wide
range of complex chemicals, and sequester elements (Bhandari et al., 2021).
Additionally, the role of microbial enzymes in mycoremediation for the processes
of degradation, reduction, oxidation, and how these are related to the
biosorption in effective removal of heavy metals is addressed.
Mycoremediation offers potential for
use in various sectors including industry, waste management, agriculture and
pesticides, homes and gardens, mining, and water treatment. Discussed are the
applications or recommendations for each sector to highlight the versatility
fungi offers in addressing environmental contamination.
Introduction
|
|
The bioaccumulation of heavy metals
not only deteriorates the soil’s environmental quality but also diminishes its
functionality. Consequently, human health and overall wellbeing are negatively
impacted. Heavy metal exposure is linked to diseases such Parkinsons,
Alzheimer’s, muscular dystrophy, an increased rate of cancer, and is known to negatively
affect brain function, and other vital organs, according to an interdisciplinary
toxicology report (Jaishankar
et al., 2014).
Mycoremediation through deployment of
bioremediation and bioaugmentation leverages the capabilities of fungi through
scalable applications. Mycoremediation techniques assess the effectiveness of
specific fungi species in the capsulation of heavy metals and their diverse
adaptability (Aibeche et al., 2022; Bhandari et al., 2021; Javaid et al., 2011).
Review of literature
Heavy metal contamination in soil
imposes a significant environmental challenge. The contamination is from causes
that are either naturally occurring (considered biogenic) or anthropogenic. Anthropogenic
sources, such as industrial activities, improper waste disposal, chemical
industry, petrochemical plants, and mining make its way into the soil through
atmospheric mixing and photo-chemical aging in both dry and wet deposition
(Clemmensen et al., 2013; Ventura et al., 2021). Through the bioaccumulation
and bioavailability of these deposits, plants can uptake these heavy metals,
imposing health effects down the food chain (Hill, 2023).
Traditional methods of heavy metal
removal are effective; however, they often lead to secondary pollution and the
further degradation of the land and are not cost-effective solutions. In
contrast, biological solutions such as mycoremediation provide a cost effective
and efficient alternative (Nahid & Amin-ul, 2020). Considering these
limitations, this has encouraged an exploration of fungal bioremediation or
bioaugmentation as an alternative (Chahrazed, 2022).
As contrasted from traditional
methods of heavy metal removal, mycoremediation offers a solution through two
different processes. Bioremediation is the process of taking an existing
(contaminated) area or environment and introducing beneficial nutrients
tailored to the selection of microorganisms most prevalent in the bioremediation
process. Bioaugmentation through fungi leverage the introduction of a certain
species’ innate capabilities of biosorption, biomineralization, and
bio-oxidation into an existing contaminated soil environment (Anderson, 2019).
In mycoremediation, bioaugmentation offers a targeted treatment option without
the use of chemicals, and if a selected species of fungi is found to not be
already located in the desired soil location, as is often the case, it allows
the use of the species through the careful introduction to a new environment
(Kumar et al., 2023).
 |
Figure 2 Image adapted from "Metagenomics to Bioremediation: Applications, Cutting Edge Tools, and Future Outlook," 1st ed., edited by Kumar et al., 2022 -- Illistration of Bioaugmentation |
Current research in the field of
fungal bioremediation suggests various single cell microorganisms’ ability to
address heavy metal soil contamination such as R. Mucilaginosa RO7 and W. Anomalus
WO2. These are yeasts capable of efficiently removing lead at rates of 98% or
greater (Aibeche et al., 2022). Similarly, multicellular fungi, such as Pleurotus
Ostreatus (oyster mushroom) have shown a remarkable ability in the uptake
of copper, nickel, zinc, and chromium through mycoremediation, where fungal
biomass is introduced in a contaminated environment to remove trace heavy
metals or other contaminates (Li, et al., 2017).
 |
| Figure 3 Image adapted from "Metagenomics to Bioremediation: Applications, Cutting Edge Tools, and Future Outlook," 1st ed., edited by Kumar et al., 2022 -- Illistration of Bioremediation |
One study from the journal article Bioremediation
Potential and Lead Removal Capacity of Heavy Metal-Tolerant Yeast Isolated from
Dayet Oum Ghellaz Lake Water, isolates seven strains of yeast for research,
indicating their ability to sequestrate heavy metals from highly contaminated soils.
The scientist tests each strain of yeast’s ability to intercellular sequestrate
(the compartmentalization of metals to allow higher levels of tolerance) and to
bioaccumulate for what metal tolerant strains could be candidates for further
research into specifically lead bioremediation (Aibeche et al., 2022).
Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) extend
beyond the ability of its symbiosis networking with plants, as AM fungi have
shown an ability to immobilize metals, including non-essential heavy metals
such as lead (Hoeksema et al., 2005; Whitfield et al., 2004). The adaptability
of mycelial networks in AM fungi is critical in enhancing the efficiency of the
bioremediation process (Worrich et al., 2016). This is particularly evident in
AM fungi's symbiosis relationship with plants bolstering efforts of
phytoremediation. The synergistic relationship between fungi and plants in
current research suggests mycorrhizal symbiosis to enhance phytoremediation
through improving soil quality and nutrient bioavailability, making
phytoremediation efforts more effective
through the supporting growth of plants (Smith & Read, 2018).
Mycoremediation occurs through the utilization of mycelium (the
vegetative body of the fungi) and produces enzymes by the fungi to break down a
wide range of contaminants or sequester heavy metals. Additionally, it has
proven a versatile solution, with capabilities to degrade other contaminants
such as pesticides, herbicides and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), as
suggested by David Hill at the University of Buffalo in a study conducted to
examine mycoremediation in urban gardening alongside current lead-remediation
policies and approaches (Hill, 2022). Fungi’s ability to degrade a broad
spectrum of pollutants increasing its versatility and applicability in
environmental remediation practices.
Studies highlight a specific
relationship between mycelium and heavy metal extraction and breakdown. Current
research on macro fungi—such as Pleurotus spp., which is both an edible
and cultivated species of the basidiomycete group, have proven effective in
extracellular sequestration of heavy metals through absorption, accumulation,
and conversion, effectively removing them from the given environment (Mohamadhasani & Rahimi, 2022
As a primary decomposer, fungi serves a natural role and has an innate ability
that can be exploited in the degradation of complex chemicals or sequestration
of non-essential heavy metals. Cell walls of fungi and mycelium contain
proteins and enzymes that can interact with metals (Rayma et al., 2021).
AM fungi have a strong role in
heavy metal bioremediation as a barrier in the arbuscular stage in an
environmental pathway. Research suggests its robust morphology and diverse
metabolic capabilities can counteract the bioavailability of heavy metal
toxicity in soil (Tomar et al., 2021). This ability of the mycorrhizal fungi
immobilizes the metal, typically through the oxidation of the metal ion
reducing Its toxicity through the deployment of biosorption (Chen et al., 2019;
Li et al., 2017). The heavy metals are absorbed into the cell walls or stored
in fungal tissues rather than remaining bioavailable in the soil.
Fungi are incredibly resilient in
nature and adaptable to non-native levels of pH, temperature, and moisture.
This resilience allows effective implementation of bioaugmentation practices in
highly polluted urban settings where the application may be most appropriate to
remediation. Compared to microbial remediation, or phytoremediation, the
mycelial networks extensive and adaptable size allows a greater surface area
for the interactions and successful uptake of pollutants (Bhandari et al., 2021). This size enhances the
efficiency of the bioremediation process when compared to other methods.
The specific biochemical and genetic
versatility of fungi through metabolic pathways allows a specific use for a
diverse range of pollutants or specific heavy metals. Its ability to adapt in a
variety of environments is essential for implementation of bioaugmentation
where the pollutant concentration and types may vary (Taghavi et al., 2023;
Tomar et al., 2021).
|
Species |
Contaminants Removed |
|
W. anomalus WO2 |
Lead (Pb) |
|
R. mucilaginosa RO7 |
Lead (Pb) |
|
Pleurotus Ostreatus |
Various Heavy Metals |
|
Cortinarius species |
Carbon (Carbon Sequestration) |
|
Suillus species |
Carbon (Carbon Sequestration) |
|
Fungi (General) |
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, Herbicides, Pesticides, Heavy Metals |
|
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi |
Various Heavy Metals |
The role of microbial enzymes to the
efficacy of fungi for mycoremediation is essential in the process of
degradation, oxidation, and reduction for environmental contaminants. Studies
into the specific enzymes’ catalysts for this process include, most notably for
soil, dehalogenases, which are able to remove halogens from a given substrate
such as bromine or chlorine, and cytochrome P450—an enzyme also found in the
liver—responsible for the breakdown of many drugs and chemicals (as shown in
figure 5), are both endogenous and exogenous to its genetic makeup (Sobika et
al., 2021; Brahmachari et al., 2023).
 |
Figure 5 Cytochrome P450 catalyzed
reaction. Adapted from “Microbial Enzymes Used in Bioremediation,” by S.
Bhandari et al., 2021 (https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8849512). |
The enzymatic process of fungi is
essential to the transformation and biosorption/bioaccumulation of heavy
metals. Through a complex series of interactions, the toxicity of heavy metals
is minimized. Research on fungal microbiology suggests heavy metals become
bound in the cell walls of a wide range of fungi through biosorption via
enzymatic reactions of the metal ions. The enzymatic transformation in this
process can catalyze redox reaction that alter the oxidation state of the
metal, increasing the stability and decreasing the toxicity by making it less
bioavailable in the environmental pathways (Ramya et al., 2021; Amiy et al., 2015;
Raja et al., 2017). Fungi have adapted this ability through a genetic necessity
to protect their own cellular structure from the toxicity of heavy metals.
Quality soil development is
associated with high levels of organic carbon and nitrogen in soil that is
readily bioavailable and created through the decomposition or organic matter
attributed in part to fungi (Di Lonardo et al., 2020). The bioavailability of nutrients
through the process of nutrient cycling is crucial to the development of
plants. It is through this process that nutrients necessary for the life of
plants are given and non-essential heavy metals are sequestered and rendered
obsolete in terms of bioavailability through the oxidation of the metal ions (Robinson
et al., 2021). This relationship between pedogenesis and mycoremediation
enhances the potential applications of this process.
Recommendations
Mycoremediation as a tool for
bioremediation of heavy metals offers a sustainable approach that is applicable
to a variety of situations, from home gardens to agriculture and pesticides,
mine tailings, water treatment, and waste management.
Industry
Current processes of metal recovery
are expensive and produce adverse
pollution, such as leaching through solvent extraction (Adeyemi et al., 2023).
Alternatively, bioleaching as a bioprocess over conventional processes,
eliminates undue pollution, while additionally aiding in precious metal waste
streams through more efficient recycling of the metals (Liang & Gadd, 2017).
Industrial waste treatment management
can more efficiently address bioavailability of heavy metals before
contaminating soil using fungi through liquid media as a catalyst. According to
Jaishankar and his colleagues this practice was studied in “electroplating,
paint, leather, metal, and tanning industries” for heavy metals: “Pb, Cd, Cr
and NI…isolated from sewage, sludge and industrial effluents” (Jaishankar et al., 2014). High scalability with minimal
research is possible when used in an isolated setting, making this an appealing
market-based alternative to traditional methods.
Waste management
The U.S. is one of the leading
producers of electronic waste, with unquestionably unethical disposal
practices. Fungi’s ability to sequester both precious and heavy metals (as well
as poly-based materials) suggests use in finding domestic alternatives to
sending e-waste to other countries. Complex materials, like e-waste, with a
variety of metals and materials means metal tolerant fungi, such as Penicillium
Simplicissimum cannot solely account for the remediation, but do offer
promising outcomes when combined with additional strains that account for the
deficiencies of another (Srivastava et al., 2022).
Given specific species’ proven
adaptability and resilience to harsh climates, the introduction of fungi to
landfill sites can bioremediate the heavy metals and other pollutants that have
leached into the ground, lowering the long-term polluting effect, or offering a
solution closer to carbon-neutral in the conversion or repair of landfill sites
to repurposed uses.
Homes and Gardens
Mycoremediation in home settings for
contaminated soil caused through municipal services or ordinances (such as
spraying), or past industrial activity jeopardize gardens due to certain plant
and vegetables’ ability to uptake heavy metals and introduce them to
environmental pathways. Phytoremediation can be effective for the removal of
unwanted substances; however, incidentally, this puts human health at risk
through the unintentional consumption of contaminated plants not intentionally
used for this purpose. A study from the University at Buffalo suggests
“mycelium has shown tremendous promise as a solution to cleaning up
environmental pollutants in soil…using dried mycelium membranes…that are
premanufactured” (Hill, 2022). An insertable and removeable material is both
marketable to home consumers and does not require prior intensive expertise
into cultivation of mycelium or mushrooms. This study focused primarily on
mycelium cell walls’ ability to uptake and retain lead.
Agriculture and Pesticides
Pesticides and fertilizers
historically contain heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, and lead, according
to the Minnesota Department of Health (MN Dept. of Health, 2023). The effect is
bioavailable non-essential heavy metals contaminating fields with a need for
the reclamation of the soil. Species identified for both their ability to
sequester heavy metals and to aid in the breakdown of historical pesticides
would prove most suitable for this application. Species Aspergillus Niger
is identified to break down endosulfan, a pesticide used primarily in India, and
has shown to be effective in sequestering heavy metals (Bhalero & Puranik,
2007). The introduction of mycoremediation practices can have a positive compounding
effect on the health of the public through the detoxification of the food
supply.
Mining
Mine
tailings are a known cause of pollution subject to “aeolian dispersion” leading
to a “significant source of air pollution in the form of particulate matter” as
published by the Environmental Health Perspective (Mendez & Maier, 2008).
Explored in this article is the phytostablization of mine tailing, particularly
in closed mines of arid or semiarid environments, where conditions are most
suitable to aeolian dispersion. Mycoremediation offers a complimentary solution
that could both stand alone or increase the efficiency of revegetation through
the symbiosis of plant and fungi relationship.
 |
Figure 6 Earthworks. (n.d.). [Diagram of acid mine drainage
process]. Acid Mine Drainage |
Acid mine drainage (AMD) threatens
local soil, water, and wildlife, and is considered irreversible (Bogush & Лазарева,
2011). However, the leaching of heavy metals may be addressed through
biofiltration with fungi. Although current research is limited to the use of
algae, biochar, and bacteria (or microbial processes) of filtration, the
potential for Mycoremediation suggests research is necessary given the
properties of known fungi on the topic.
Water Treatment
In relation to both AMD and
municipal applications, water treatment and wastewater treatment could benefit
from the incorporation of fungi into the filtration processes to remove heavy
metals before water or runoff is used or recycled. This process is known as mycofiltration.
The technology has already reached a level of commercial viability as deployed
by the Wandle Trust in the United Kingdom in 2014 by demonstrating the
installation of mycofiltration sacks
where surface water would be most polluted along a local body of water (Wandle
Trust, 2014).
The continuation of research and
implementation of this technology would serve to better filter storm water
runoff where pollutants can be found in high concentrations in storm drains,
filtering the water before it reaches large bodies of water.
Conclusion
Soil contamination is a
multifaceted and pervasive issue with profound implication on environmental and
human health. Mycoremediation presents a novel and sustainable solution in
junction with existing remediation processes without secondary pollution.
Mycoremediation through
bioaugmentation and bioremediation presents economically appealing and
ecologically neutral or beneficial approaches to heavy metal remediation that
is both novel and innovative to environmental restoration and conservation. The applications are diverse, and encompass a
broad range of potential uses, from the revitalization of home gardens, the
enhancement of existing practices in water treatment and filtration, or waste
management.
Mycoremediation is an essential
necessity in environmental management strategies that demands continuation in
research and implementation for the future of environmental policy.
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